John Locke’s Vision of Political Order That Inspired American Constitution Essay Example

John Locke’s Vision of Political Order That Inspired American Constitution Essay John Locke’s vision of political order that inspired American constitution Content Introduction3 1Tabula rasa4 2First Treatise4 3Second Treatise5 4Political society6 5American Constitution7 Conclusion8 Resources9 Introduction As the title of this paper says the main aim of this essay is to discuss John Locke’s vision of political order that inspired American constitution. In order to do that it is essential to introduce some of the most important ideas with which had John Locke come up, try to explain his theories and finally to briefly go through the American constitution itself. John Locke, born in 1632, is one of the most influential philosophers, not only in his era, but also many centuries after his death. Locke’s roots lay firmly among the Puritans who fought the Civil War in the name of parliamentary constitution and a godly church,[1] which had a great impact on his future life. He entered Westminster school in 1646, and passed to Christ Church, he graduated as bachelor of medicine in Oxford in 1674. His knowledge of medicine and occasional practice of the art led, in 1666, to an acquaintance with Lord Ashley (afterwards, from 1672, Earl of Shaftesbury). The acquaintance, begun accidentally, had an immediate effect on Locke’s career. When Shaftesbury was made Lord Chancellor in 1672, Locke became his secretary for presentations to benefices, and, in the following year, was made secretary to the board of trade. [2] John Locke followed Lord Ashley to Holland and then lived in the Dutch republic and France, too. However he has not started his writings until the return back to England. Locke is considered to be the Father of Liberalism and also one of the most important thinkers of the Enlightenment. We will write a custom essay sample on John Locke’s Vision of Political Order That Inspired American Constitution specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on John Locke’s Vision of Political Order That Inspired American Constitution specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on John Locke’s Vision of Political Order That Inspired American Constitution specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Thanks to his new theories and his quite wide range of topics he has inspired many following philosophers. Of his works is to be mentioned the two most known An Essay Concerning Human Understanding and Two Treatises of Government. This essay will mostly deal with the second named. Tabula rasa To better understand John Locke’s political theory is necessary to introduce his main ideas in other fields of philosophy, too. First of all is to depict Locke’s vision of men. He considers that human are all born as tabula rasa. Which means that every single person is born without any built-in-mental content, they are all completely plain. The intelligence, emotions, social behaviour, probably everything what makes a body into a human being is learned from experience and perception. There are no qualities, which are people already born with. First Treatise The Two Treatises were published in 1690. [3] Each Treatise has its own content, the First Treatise focuses on the argumentation against Sir Robert Filmer’s writing Patriarcha. The main idea of Filmer’s work is that kings are God’s regents on Earth. Judging from this statement, the whole monarchy system is supposed to be divine and the only possible type of government is an absolute monarchy. Filmer justifies his ideas with the help of Bible and the vision of Adam as the first absolute monarch. Locke strongly disagreed with Filmer and trough the whole First Treatise, finds arguments to refute Filmer’s theory and support his visions. Surprisingly he derives many of his statements from Bible, too. Locke’s First Treatise provided a description of God’s purposes which provides a large part of the basis of the Second Treatise. [4] Second Treatise The Second Treatise overlaps wide range of themes, which altogether create a consistent outline of how the society and its political system according Locke should look like. One of Locke’s basic theories is the one about natural law. Natural law, understood as a universal law set by nature, obviously existed before Locke. According to Locke, natural law can be discovered by reason, so it is accessible to all people. In contrast the divine law is revealed only to people chosen by God. Natural and divine law are both coherent, they can occupy the same range of focus and they don’t contradict at any point. God is taken as mankind’s superior, who imposes moral obligations to humans. These laws and obligations, if they are understood correctly, should lead to some kind of general order. This order is the so called State of Nature. Locke claims that the state of nature is a relation concept describing a particular set of moral relations that exist between particular people rather than a description of a particular geographical territory. The state of nature is just the way of describing moral rights and responsibilities that exist between people who have not consented to the adjudication of their desputes by the same legitimate government. 5] Locke assumes that if God has not given directly power to any individual, all the people are made naturally equal, further more they are all natural free with rights such as right to liberty, right to life and property, too. His vision of property is an important issue; he had to solve the problem how to justify private property as the earth w as given by God to all and in the state of nature is everything commonly owned, too. Locke builds his arguments upon labour, the fact that man creates something by his own hands, which were given to him by God, allows him to state the final product as his roperty. As this definition on its own practically allows people to consider for example a water well their property, Locke adds that no one should take more than he actually needs for his life and joy and that God didn’t make anything to be spoiled or destroyed. Locke disapproves slavery, which corresponds to his idea of equality and freedom. Yet there are two cases in which is slavery acceptable for him. Firstly when man causes an aggression against someone else, then he can be enslaved and it would be considered as fair. The second possibility is when man enslaves himself to another by his own decision. This brings us to the theme of parental power. According to Locke people are born free, but as they are born as tabula rasa, they are not mature enough to be able to make their own decision based on reason. Therefore children have to be protected by parents until they develop their reason and knowledge to certain level. Political society Locke is aware of the fact, that the state of nature is not suitable for the society and that the society itself intent to create some sort of civil society with established laws, which he calls commonwealth. The so called commonwealth possesses power, but because the power was given to it by people, people also have the right to make a revolution/civil war if the system is not working according to the treaty, for example when government acts contrary to the legislative. People are free to remove themselves from their government- that is they are free to secede and to establish a new commonwealth if they see fit, for only an explicit promise or contract can put man into a society and, just as children upon reaching maturity are free to leave their parents, so too are men free to leave their society. 6] And on the other hand by joining a society man gives up his power to protect himself to the laws of the society. Setting up a government is a completely rational act, the power given to government is to secure the public welfare, protect citizens from possible external aggression and so on and so forth. Polity according to Locke has three aspects: executive, legislative and federative. The distinction is amongst functions. One agency is to legislate, another to execute the laws and so on, and another still to conduct foreign relations. 7] Executive and federative are subordinate to legislative. Locke wants rather a responsible than an absolute government. American Constitution In its most basic form, the Constitution is a flexible, lawful document of rights and restrictions. The Articles of the Constitution affirm the shape of government, divided into three branches, which are given powers to keep the others in check to balance government. The amendments grant certain civil liberties, but like the articles, also assert specific rules and restrictions on those who are not granted civil rights. [8] As it is known, America was a British colony for many years; the problems started to emerge, when The British Emporium started to more economically and politically suppress America. The taxes were growing; America had no representation in the British parliament, the acceptation of Townshend Acts- all these issues lead not only to the broadly know Boston Tea Party, but also to the revolution and the birth of United States of America. On the 4th of July 1776 the Declaration of Independence was adopted by the Continental Congress and since then the 4th of July is the most important day for all Americans. The Declaration of Independence and the American Constitution stem from the idea of a community, where the people are free, have their rights, and where they can affect their government. Before the revolution were all the main laws coming all the way from United Kingdom, which strengthened the need to have the polity more straightforward and obviously also more closer. Conclusion It is not surprising that Locke’s vision of political system where the government has only a certain power, which was given to him by people, interested and furthermore inspired the creators of American Constitution. The lack of possible impact on the law and its execution was one of the reasons for the American Revolution. We can also see similarities between the so called American dream, where everyone is able to succeed in whatever he chooses, he only needs to work hard enough and Locke’s argumentation for having private property, where he claims that what man creates with his hands belongs to him. It is not really possible to cover Locke’s wide range of themes and his numerous writings in one essay, but it is indisputable that his affect on political thinking was huge. His ideas from all the ranges are connected one to another and altogether create a coherent philosophy. Resources Locke, John: Political Essays, Edited by Mark Goldie, Cambridge University Press, 1999, ISBN 0Â  521 478618 Harris, Ian: Locke’s political theory (study support) http://www. iep. utm. edu/locke/ (attended on 27. 12. 2010) http://plato. stanford. edu/entries/locke-political/(attended on 27. 12. 2010) http://www. iep. utm. edu/locke-po/(attended on 7. 2. 2011) http://www. marylandsar. rg/SAR-Documents/Essay/Third-Tie-Essay-MDSSAR-0708. pdf (attended on 7. 2. 2011) [1] Locke, John: Political Essays; Edited by Mark Goldie; pg xiv [2] http://www. iep. utm. edu/locke/ [3] http://www. iep. utm. edu/locke/ [4] Harris, Ian: Locke’s political theory [5] http://plato. stanford. edu/entries/locke-political/ [6] http://www. iep. utm. edu/locke-po/ [7] Harris, Ian: Locke’s political theory [8] http://www. marylandsar. org/SAR-Documents/Essay/Third-Tie-Essay-MDSSAR-0708. pdf

Meursault as The Stranger essays

Meursault as The Stranger essays Meursault as The Stranger The way a person reacts to ordinary situations determines the opinions of others based on their behavior. Yet, when this behavior is abnormal or different from the rest of society, it causes society to form an opinion based totally on a persons behavior not their true personality. In Meursaults case, his strange opinions and unexpected remarks put him in this position, without ever really giving him an opportunity to be truly understood. However, Meursault cannot change his actions and behaviors from the past, therefore making him responsible in the society he freely chooses to live in. Meursaults complete indifference to society and human relationships causes him to appear as the actual stranger with those he encounters, which eventually leads to his incarceration and inevitable date with the guillotine. Meursault is definitely a man who is set in his ways. He has his own opinions and outlooks on life and because of that fact he is constantly reminded of his inadequacies within society. His refusal to look at his mother one last time after she had passed away seemed pointless to Meursault at the time, where as the funeral director viewed this as extremely odd: We put the cover on, but Im supposed to unscrew the casket so you can see her. He was moving toward the casket when I stopped him. He said, You dont want to? I answered, No. He was quiet, and then I was embarrassed because I felt I shouldnt have said that. He looked at me and then asked, Why not? but without criticizing, as if he just wanted to know. I said, I dont know. (Camus 6) The difference of opinion between Meursault and all of society, but in this example the funeral director, brought about a feeling of inadequacy to Meursault and an appearance of him as a stranger to society....

Discuss the letter Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Discuss the letter - Essay Example However reading the opening part of the letter, the author seems to be rational in his ideas as he quotes concrete evidence of whatever that he perceives. The author has based his understanding of the situation upon hardcore facts and not mere assumptions. In this case it can be said that the argument presented by the author is rationally strong as it provides the readers with a reason to believe. However as we move to the next passage of the letter, it can be observed that though the author has build up his argument in a rational manner once again, but this argument contradicts the preceding one. In this case, though, the readers have strong evidence and reasons to believe in what is being communicated, but the contradiction in the overlapping passages may go on to bewilder the readers and lead to a state of irresolution (Sellnow 185). The penultimate passage is followed by a conclusive one. Ironically, the conclusive part of the letter leaves the readers with a question, unanswered. In this paragraph, the author has used his rhetorical power to get his message across to the audience. The author incorporates a personalized tone to the message and indicates the inception of personal influence in the conclusion that the author has drawn himself, inspired by his personal experiences and perceptions to various stimuli in the world. The final lines of the letter are analyzed to be rhetoric because the author does not provide solid evidence or basis to the reader to believe in what is being said. The reader is left with the freedom to either believe in what is being said or simply leave it. This is the specified characteristic of rhetorical arguments; they leave the reader in an indecisive state and let them make their own opinions. However there is a strong likelihood of readers agreeing to what is being communicated and base their opinions as per those of the author, but this depends upon

American Creation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

American Creation - Essay Example Lincoln had fought the elections with the claim that slavery would not be spread into any new state and would remain within the states where it existed. These seven states then rooted for succession, even before Lincoln took office. This move was rejected by the US administration and seen as a rebellion. The American Civil War was one of the deadliest wars in history. It resulted in the deaths of hundred thousands of soldiers: approximately 620000 and civilians (Donald 2001). This essay will discuss if civil war was inevitable and what were the major causes the forced the seven states into rebelling against the newly formed government. Timing and space were seen as a vital aspect of gaining freedom from the British forces (Ellis). Not only did this freedom come during a time when human rights were better understood, there was no choice left but for the American nation to seek independence. Also, the geography of America was such that its vastness compelled it to be wrested out of the hands of the occupying forces. In the same way, the leaders understood this concept of time and space, allowing them to be victorious in the civil war. The compromises of 1850 had been created to resolve any territorial or slavery problems that arose in the newly created state (Rhodes 1896). These laws were created for the slave states of the South and the free states of the North. The self-righteous but truly commercial motives of the North were often masked as a crusade (Stammp). These compromises were made to ensure that no state felt itself ousted from the system, allowing them to play an integral and vital role in giving stability to the burgeoning country. These compromises included various forms initiated by the government. For instance, Texas was a necessary state to include in the country. When Mexico took over the state of Texas, the only solution for America was to buy the heavily indebted state with which a large portion of the land was moved under the control of America's federal government. Another one these compromises included the decision made on the territories of New Mexico and Utah. The provisions provided by th e compromise organized the land given to both states. It also gave them the freedom of choosing to permit or prohibit slavery depending on the decision of the masses. This however was a flaw that was later corrected by the Wilmot Proviso which forbade slavery in any territory that was acquired from Mexico (Holt 1978). Thus, while the land and borders had been marked. The problems existing within the states were not recognized in the compromise. California was accepted as a free state within the decisions of this compromise. Another aspect of these compromises was the abolition of slave trade in the District of Columbia. Thus it was made to suit the needs of those who had possession of slaves. It was seen as a huge step because it stopped the sale of slaves in the region but did not work to dig out the root of problem: the possession of slaves. One of the most important aspects of the compromises made in 1850 was the installation of the Fugitive Slave Act. This Act did not specify an y state: free or slave. Every territory was expected to take any slave who had run away back to the owner. Thus, ordinary citizens could be to participate in the custody, capture and transportation of the escaped slave back to

Public Relations Strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Public Relations Strategy - Essay Example However, in order to formulate a successful strategy, it is critical that a proper strategic management process is followed. This process is a step by step process which involves different stages through which organizational strategy has to pass through in order to be effective. Such process involves a detailed situational analysis i.e. the process of taking into account the external as well as internal factors before framing and formulating an strategy. The situational analysis also allows an organization to set its strategic objectives and bases on such objectives; strategies are designed to achieve such strategic objectives. Further, organizations also need to choose the tactics and then subsequently communicating the same to the stakeholders so that the same can easily disseminated to all the relevant stakeholders. "Public Relations is the profitable integration of organization's new and continuing relationships with the stakeholders including customers by managing all communications contacts with the organization that create and protect the brand and reputation of the organization"(Cawood,1997) British Petroleum or BP is one of the oldest companies in this line of business having more than 100 years of experience. Listed on London Stock Exchange, BP was formed during 1909 as Anglo-Persian Oil Company and has successfully transformed itself into one of the highly successful firms in the world. BP claims to be one of the largest energy companies in the world providing efficient fuel for transportation, energy for heating as well as light and offering other retail petrochemical products for use in everyday life. BP has the presence in over 100 countries with more than 90,000 employees working for it in different countries drilling more than 3 million barrels of oil per day. Such huge level of operations is only possible due to the successful management of the firm in strategic manner through diversification of its brands which cater to the needs of the different segments of the market. It is also critical to note that British Government has remained one of the shareholders of the firm during 1950s however; the stakes of UK government were subsequently sold during 1970s in order to give the firm more freedom and creativity to flourish as the third largest energy company in the world. BP is technically engaged into the exploration and production of petroleum and petroleum related products, refining them and subsequently marketing them. Apart from this, the firm is also involved into the production of different chemicals such as engine oils etc. Some Statistics about BP1 As of December 2007, 1. BP had the market capitalization of over GBP 230 Billion. 2. Sales and operating revenue of approximately GBP 284 Billion. 3. Number of total shareholders is in excess of 1 million. 4. Its proven reserves of the gas and oil were approximately over 17 billion barrels out of which 57% of the reserves are oil whereas rest comprises of the natural gas. 5. It produces 2.4 million barrels of oil and 8.1 billion cubic feet of natural gas from its various sites operated at multiple locations across the world. 6.

Regulation of Advertising in the UAE

Regulation of Advertising in the UAE Contents (Jump to) Introduction Cases of regulation in the United Arab Emirates Top exercise in compliance Advertising Standards in UAE Aims Standards in association to advertisements Conclusion Bibliography Introduction With numerous advertising messages contending for the responsiveness of the potential customers, it might be appropriate to determine that there is enormous pressure on both advertisers and advertising agencies to make sure that their advertisements are the most notable. Further seeing that the normal time taken to make an impression using sign board adverts is seemingly between five to three seconds, the pressure to make sure that an advert is efficient increases vitally (Waldo, 2012). As an outcome of the competition for the consideration of the potential customers, advertisers might feel attracted to overstate the features and qualities of services or products offered, or use other means of language that may result in being more notable than precise (Waldo, 2012). Taking account of the large investment sources gotten to tolerate behind advertising campaigns and the effect that effective campaign can have in attaining greater sales or greater customer commitment, it is not just the customers that are in need of protection from misleading adverts, but also trade competitors (Advertising Standards for the UAE, 2013). Misleading or overstated claims in adverts about the benefits of or features of a product may be detrimental to the sales of contending products and may incidentally indicate insufficiencies in contending products. For example, an assertion that product A gives you the complete satisfaction and there is no other product as such, this clearly indicates that other similar products in the market are insufficient in comparison with product A as they do not deliver same level of satisfaction (Setting up an advertising agency in the UAE, 2013). Cases of regulation in the United Arab Emirates In some dominions, such as for instance the UK, advertising is fundamentally structured through sovereign self-regulating bodies, as well as certain legislation. In the UAE no such self-regulating body exits and advertising is regulated through a mixture of requirements drafted from laws emphasizing on the protection of customers and on the other hand, the happenings of businesses that might establish prejudicial competition. The Executive Regulation to the Customer Protection Law delivers that the customers have a privilege to be delivered with the facts that support them in appropriate consumption and purchases. The Executive Regulation further precisely deals with advertising, providing: â€Å"No individual will be allowed to advertise in any medium any service or goods in a manner which results in mystifying or misleading customers.† (Waldo, 2012). The Department for Customer Protection is the suitable governmental department which deals with customer complaints and the Customer Protection Law delivers for a minimum fine in the occurrence of an infringement of the law. Customers distressed by deceiving adverts may consequently address their complaints unswervingly to the Department for Customer Protection (Zainab, 2014). Additionally, to the provisions of the Customer Protection Law, the Suppression of Fraud Executive Regulation discourses salable declarations whether made indirectly or directly providing: â€Å"must be appropriate in all reverences whether placed on shops, inside shops, products, or on invoices, packaging, correspondence, advertising tool or material or any other things used to deliver goods to the customers.† Commercial statements are identified in the Fraud Regulation to comprise for instance the â€Å"specifications and power† and â€Å"configuration† of products and as such, advertisin g comprising germane claims that are not correct in any reverence will be in infringement of the Fraud Regulation. The domain of the Fraud Regulation is much inclusive than the sheer emphasize on â€Å"commercial statements† as demarcated therein, as it also delivers that a trader may not recourse to any approach that would mislead or confuse the customers as well as delivering that â€Å"A merchant, producer, manufacturer may not† (Michael, 2010). Additionally, to the above stated regulation and laws governing advertising acts, the Commercial Transactions Law delivers additional protection to the potential competitors in trade that may be influenced by deceiving adverts. The Commercial Transactions Law delivers that a â€Å"dealer must not recourse to cheating and fraud when making his goods, nor may he publish or spread deceitful specifics that are detrimental to the interests of another competitor trader†. Where a dealer is shamefaced of disobeying this provision, it will be accountable to pay the damages (Anita, 2013). Though, in UAE there is no existence of self-regulating body that delivers a platform for the submission and hearing of advertising associated complaints, the United Arab Emirates legal system delivers numerous mechanisms through which traders and customers can complain against deceiving and misleading advertising. There is consequently no reason for either customers or trader to accept deceiving and irresponsible adverts in the UAE, specifically where advertisers should take appropriate consideration of the vital language and cultural differences that occur in the customer population in the UAE (Michael, 2010). Top exercise in compliance There is a probability that the UAE governments increased emphasize on customer protection and attempts to make customers aware of their privileges as customers may lead to more crucial evaluation of advertising claims by both government officials and customers. In contradiction of the circumstantial of advertising regulation in the UAE and the greater general social accountability of advertisers to customers, advertisers should make sure as a top exercise that internal advertising authorization must also include suitable legal review and legal compliance authorization (Mo, 2013) Advertising Standards in UAE Upon publication in the Federal Newspaper, the latest Advertising Standards will oblige to unite the various fundamentals regulating content in association to advertisements in the UAE, underlining numerous principle decrees (Anita, 2013). Aims With a perspective of making sure that the advertising industry’s act in accordance with the laws and regulations of the UAE, the latest Standards governing advertising are proposed to: Impart reverence for the local cultural, social and religious values and beliefs which triumph in the UAE. Fortify the independence of expression of the media. Form the advertising division as one which contributes to the progression of economic growth in the UAE and make sure that all advertising content is; honest, unbiased, have respect for the privacy of individuals and protects the public from detrimental effects (Anita, 2013). Standards in association to advertisements The advertising Standards define ideologies in association to all old-style and digital adverts published or broadcast via any media organization and channel in the UAE. Though the advertising Standards does not set out the meaning of these terms, they may be perceived generally to involve advertisements issued by stores, for instance (Advertising Standards for the UAE, 2013). Many of the Standards defined in the Advertising Standards repeat ideologies already formed under numerous prevailing regulations and legislations, while others comes with new laws regulating advertising content in the province and advertisements (Advertising Standards for the UAE, 2013). Here is the summary of the key standards below: Reverence for political and religion institutions – All the advertising content must account for respect to all religions and must not in any way offend Islamic values. It must not disregard the government of the UAE and/or the political institutions and symbols thereof. Forbidden services/products – The advertising Standards clearly forbid the advertising of products like alcohol, tobacco and all other banned products or services. Forbidden content – The standard forbid the publication of pictures and words that breach public ethics. They also forbid the propagation and spread of information that may prejudice women or children or public in general. The standard also forbids the incitement of hatred, sectarianism and violence through advertising content. Privacy – With a perspective to protect the privacy of the public, the Standards clearly forbids the broadcast and publication misleading rumors and news. Customer protection – The Standards mandate obedience with the rules regulating customer protection and commercial activities specifically in association to anti-competitive unlawful monopolies and practices. Health legislations – Advertising content associated pharmaceutical products or medicines must be in compliance with the laws defined by Cabinet Resolution No. 7 of 2007 Regarding Health Advertisements legislations. Conclusion The rules and regulations mentioned above is the framework of how advertisements are governed in the UAE. Any company selling their products or services in UAE must comply with all these rules and regulations when before marketing their product or advertising it, any failure to comply with these may lead to crucial penalties (Shani, 2010). Bibliography Advertising Standards for the UAE. (2013). Retrieved from http://www.thelawyer.com/briefings/advertising-standards-for-the-uae/3001344.article Anita, S. (2013). ADVERTISING STANDARDS FOR THE UAE. Retrieved from http://www.tamimi.com/en/magazine/law-update/section-5/february-4/advertising-standards-for-the-uae.html Michael, H. (2010). UAE Health Advertisements Regulation Could Challenge Industry. Retrieved from http://www.camlawblog.com/articles/international/uae-health-advertisements-regulation-could-challenge-industry/ Mo, A. (2013). The UAE National Media Council regulates dialects in advertising. Retrieved from http://www.measuredpr.com/2013/01/18/the-uae-national-media-council-regulates-dialects-in-advertising/ Setting up an advertising agency in the UAE. (2013). Retrieved from http://ameinfo.com/smeinfo/fact_finder/setting-up-an-advertising-agency-in-the-uae/ Shani, S. (2010). Consumer Protection Law of UAE. Retrieved from http://www.hg.org/article.asp?id=4999 Steve, B. (2014). Sports sponsorship: advertising restrictions in the GCC. Retrieved from http://www.sportspromedia.com/guest_blog/sports_sponsorship_advertising_restrictions_in_the_gcc Waldo, S. (2012). Advertising Regulations in the UAE. Retrieved from http://www.tamimi.com/en/magazine/law-update/section-6/september-2/advertising-regulations-in-the-uae.html Zainab, C. (2014). Misleading Trade Descriptions And Sanctions Thereof. Retrieved from http://www.thelawyer.com/briefings/advertising-standards-for-the-uae/3001344.article

Integrated Pest Management :: essays research papers

Integrated Pest Management Integrated pest management (IPM) is a recently developed technology for pest control that is aimed at achieving the desired control while reducing the use of pesticides. To accomplish this, various combinations of chemical, biological, and physical controls are employed. In the past, pesticides were all too often applied routinely whether needed or not. With IPM, pest populations as well as beneficial parasite and predator populations are monitored to determine whether the pests actually present a serious problem that needs to be treated. If properly and extensively employed, IPM might reduce pesticide use by as much as 50 percent, while at the same time improving pest control. If this goal were achieved, the environmental problems would be minimized, and significant benefits would result for farmers and society as a whole. IPM coordinates economically and environmentally acceptable methods of pest control with judicious and minimal use of toxic pesticides. IPM programs assess local conditions, including climate, crop characteristics, the biology of the pest species, and soil quality, to determine the best method of pest control. Tactics employed include better tillage to prevent soil erosion and introduction of beneficial insects that eat harmful species. Many pests that are attached to crop residues can be eliminated by plowing them underground. Simple paper or plastic barriers placed around fruit trees deter insects, which can also be attracted to light traps and destroyed. Weeds can be controlled by spreading grass, leaf, or black plastic mulch. Weeds also may be pulled or hoed from the soil. Many biological controls are also effective. Such insect pests as the European corn borer, and the Japanese beetle, have been controlled by introducing their predators and parasites. Wasps that prey on fruit-boring insect larvae are now being commercially bred and released in California orchards. The many hundreds of species of viruses, bacteria, protozoa, fungi, and nematodes that parasitize pest insects and weeds are now being investigated as selective control agents. Another area of biological control is breeding host plants to be pest resistant, making them less prone to attack by fungi and insects. The use of sex pheromones is an effective measure for luring and trapping insects. Pheromones have been synthesized for the Mediterranean fruit fly, the melon fly, and the Oriental